VENUS

V e N U s

Venus is a rocky planet and the second  planet from the Sun. Venus spins slowly back wards as it orbits the sun, causing its rotation period to be the longest in the solar system, about 234 Earth days. It is slightly smaller than Earth and probably has a similar internal structure, consisting of a semi-solid metal core , surrounded by a rocky mantle and crust. Venus is the brightest object in the sky after the sun and Moon because its atmosphere reflects sunlight strongly. The main component of the atmosphere is carbon dioxide, which traps heat in a green house effect far stronger than that on Earth. As a result, Venus is the hottest planet, with a maximum surface temperature of about  480°C. The thick cloud layers contain droplets of sulphuric acid and are driven around the planet by wind at speed of up to 360 kilometer per hour. Although the planet takes 243 Earth days to rotate once, the high speed winds cause the clouds to circle the planet in only four days. The high temperature, acidic clouds and enormous atmospheric pressure (about 90 times greater at the surface than that on Earth) make the environment extremely hostile. However, space probes have managed to land on Venus and photograph its dry, dusty surface. The Venusian surface has also been mapped by probes with radar equipment that can see through the cloud layers. Such radar maps reveal a terrain with craters, mountains, volcanoes and ares where craters have been covered by plains of solidified volcanic lava. There are two large high land regions called Aphrodite Terra and Ishtar Terra.



TILT AND ROTATION OF VENUS

CAMERA AND IT'S WORKING

C a M E r A

A camera is an instrument for recording images on photographic film. It consists of a light-tight box with a shutter, a lens containing a diaphragm, and a viewing system. When the shutter is released, the film is exposed to light from the subject that is being photographed. Adjusting the shutter speed alters the time for which the film is exposed to light. The diaphragm, by altering the aperture of the lens, controls the intensity of light entering the camera. The total amount of light entering the camera is called the exposure. The lens focuses the light on to the film. When there is insufficient  light to produce an adequate image, a flash gun may be used to give extra light.

KEYBOARD INSTRUMENTS

K e Y B o A r D     I n s T r U M e N T s

Keyboard instruments are instruments that are sounded by means of a keyboard. The organ and piano are two of the principal members of the keyboard family. The organ consists of pipes which are operated by one or more manuals (keyboards) and a pedal board. the pipes are are lined up in rows (known as ranks or registers ) on top of a wind chest. The sound of the organ is made when air is admitted into a pipe by pressing a key or pedal. The piano consists of wire strings stretched over a metal frame, and a keyboard and pedals that operate hammers and dampers. The piano frame is either vertical-as in the upright piano. When a key is at rest, a damper lies against the string to stop it vibrating. When a key is pressed down, the damper moves away from the string as the hammer strikes it, causing the string to vibrate and sound a note.

ANATOMY OF THE UNIVERSE

A n A t o M y    o F    T h E    U n i V e R S e

The universe contains every thing that exists, from the tiniest subatomic particles to galactic super clusters (the largest structure known). Nobody knows how big the universe is, but astronomers estimate that it contains about 100 billion galaxies, each comprising an average of 100 billion stars. The most widely accepted theory about the origin of the Universe is the Big Bang theory, Which states that the universe came into being in a huge explosion-the Big Bang-that took place between 10 and 20 billion years ago. The Universe initially consisted of a very hot, dense fireball of expanding, cooling gas. After about one million years, the gas probably began to condense into localized clumps called proto galaxies. During the next five billion years, the proto galaxies continued condensing, forming galaxies in which stars were begin to born. Today billions of years later, the Universe as a whole is still expanding, although there are localized areas in which objects are held together by gravity; for example, many galaxies are found in clusters. The big bang theory is supported by the discovery of faint, cool background radiation coming evenly from all directions. This radiation is believed to be the remnant of the radiation produced by Big Bang. Small "ripples" in the temperature of the cosmic background radiation are thought to be evidence of slight fluctuations in the density of the early universe, which resulted in the formation of galaxies. Astronomers do not yet know if the Universe is "closed", which means it will eventually stop expanding and begin to contract, or if it is "open", which means it will continue expanding forever.

THE TRUTH ABOUT DRIVING DISTRACTIONS

Driving distractions is defined as: The voluntary or involuntary diversion of attention away from primary driving tasks.

ANATOMY OF DISTRACTIONS

VISUALLooking at something 
other than the road

AUDITORY
Hearing something not
 related to driving

PHYSICALManipulating other
 than the wheel

COGNITIVE
Thinking about something 
other than driving

SOURCES OF DISTRACTIONS

INTERNAL

TECH BASED

NON-TECH BASED

EXTERNAL

10 MOST COMMON DISTRACTION

MANIPULATING VEHICLE CONTROL

MANIPULATING MUSIC/AUDIO CONTROLS

MOBILE PHONES

EXTERNAL DISTRACTIONS

CONVERSING

EATING,DRINKING ACCIDENTAL
 SPILLING

GROOMING

OTHER PASSENGERS IN THE CAR

READING AND WRITING

SMOKING

ONE THIRD of all distractions are estimated to be outside the vehicle distractions

15%-20% of all distractions involve driver interaction with technology.

APS AND DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY

A P S   a N d    D i G I t a L   P h O T o G R a p h Y

The advanced photo system was announced in 1995 as a break through in photographic technology. Developed over five years by a consortium of the film and camera manufactures (Kodak, Nikon, Fuji, Canon, Minolta), the APS was designed to maximize the quality of the image taken by amateur photographers, and to over come some of the most common problems encountered. The key to this new system is the "smart" film with its drop-in and automatic-load cassette. The film contains a magnetic strip, which records information specific to each shot, such as lighting conditions, magnification, date and time, and communicates this data to the processing equipment in the mini lab. Once processed, the photographer receives a set of index prints, the photographs in any one of three different print sizes and the developed film stored within the original cassette. APS film can be directly scanned and digitized, allowing the new system to bridge the gap between conventional 35mm film and digital photography.

PRINT FORMATS: A great advantage of APS is the variety it allows in the format of the print. When taking a picture there are three different formats which can be selected: C (classic) gives a normal 35mm print, H (HDTV) is for a wider view and P (Panorama) provides the extra-wide landscape shot.

Information about each frame- such as lighting conditions, selected print format, and exposure speed- is recorded on magnetic data strips. In a process called "information exchange" this data is read by processing equipment, which adjusts itself to produce the best result for each individual picture.

APS FILM AND CARTRIDGE: To avoid mis feeding, the cassette loads, advances and reacts the film automatically and is also used to store processed film. A data disc tells the camera the film speed, type and exposure length. 

DIGITAL IMAGE SCANNER: The digital imag scanner alows user to input developed APS film cartridges into their personal computer. The index view instantly displays thumbnail versions of all the images stored on the roll.

INFORMATIVE DATA AND INDEX PRINTS: IX allows a variety of information to be imprinted on the back of each photo. Not only is the date and time given, but a title for each shot can be chosen. At-a-glance index prints are also provide showing the C, H or P formats at each frame plus the print number.

DIGITAL IMAGE WORKSTATION: Photographs are digitized and placed on templates for printing out on a colour printer. The workstation can also store the images on floppy discs or send them on-line to other locations.

DIGITAL CAMERA

KODAK DC50

NO FILM OR PROCESSING REQUIRED: Film less digital camera are a technological advancement in the professional photography  world. Within minutes a picture can be taken and transmitted anywhere in the world, either via telephone or E-mail. Digital cameras are also ideal for desktop publishing, business presentations and a variety of scientific or industrial applications.




CANON EOS-1 WITH KODAK DCS 3C

TRANSMITTING LIGHT INTO DIGITAL DATA:   Electronic sensors inside the camera transmit the different levels of light, which enter through the red, green and blue  filters onto a CCD (photo-sensitive semi conductor). The CCD digitally records the image and stores it onto a PCM-CIA card-a tiny hard disc drive.

FROM DATA TO ON-SCREEN IMAGE:  Digital cameras can be plugged into a computer's  serial port and the pictures can be instantly transferred from the camera's hard disc into popular applications such as Word perfect and page maker.

MOSAIC THE ART OF MAKING

M o S a I C

MOSAIC IS THE ART OF MAKING patterns and pictures from tesserae (small, coloured pieces of glass, marble and other materials). Different materials are cut into tesserae using different tools. Smalti (glass enamel) and marble are cut into pieces using a hammer and a hardy ( a pointed blade) embedded in a log. Vitreous glass is cut into pieces using a pair of nippers. Mosaics can be made using direct or indirect method. In the direct method, the tesserae are laid directly into a bed of cement-based adhesive. In the indirect method, the design is drawn in reverse on paper or cloth. The tesserae are then stuck face down on the paper or cloth using water soluble glue. Adhesive is spread with a towel on to a solid surface -such as wall- and the back of the mosaic is laid into the adhesive. Finally, the paper or cloth is soaked off to reveal the mosaic. Gaps between tesserae can be filled with grout. Grout is forced into gaps by dragging a grouting squeegee across the  face of the mosaic. Mosaics are usually used to decorate walls and floors, but they can also be applied to smaller objects.

MERCURY THE NEAREST PLANET TO THE SUN

M e R c U R y

MERCURY IS THE NEAREST PLANET TO SUN, orbiting at an average distance of about 58 million kilometers. Because Mercury is the closest planet to sun, it moves faster than any other planets, by travelling at an average speed of nearly 48 kilometers per second and completing an orbit just under 88 days. Mercury is very small (only PLUTO is smaller) and rocky. Most of the surface has been heavily cratered by the impact of meteorites, although there are also smooth, sparsely cratered plains. The Caloris Basin is the largest crater measuring about 1,300 kilometers across. It is thought to have been formed When a rock of the average size of an asteroid hit the planet, and is surrounded by concentric rings of mountains thrown up by the impact. The surface also has many ridges (called rupes) that are thought to have been formed when the hot core of the young planet cooled and shrank about four billion years ago, buckling the planet's surface in the process. The planet rotates its own axis very slowly, taking nearly 59 Earth days to complete one rotation. As a result, a solar day (sunrise to sunrise) on Mercury is about 176 Earth days - twice as long as the 88-day Mercurian year. Mercury has extreme surface temperature, ranging from a maximum of 430 degree Celsius  on the sunlit side to -170 degree Celsius  on the dark side. At night fall, the temperature drops very quickly because the Planet's atmosphere is almost non-existent. It consists only of minute amount of helium and hydrogen captured from the solar wind, plus traces of other gases.

ELECTRIC AND HIGH SPEED TRAINS

E L e C t R I c     a N d    H i G h    S p E e D    T r a I N s

The first electromotive ran on 1879 in Berlin, Germany. In Europe, electric trains developed as a more efficient alternative to the steam and diesel - electric power. Like diesel, electric trains employ electric motors to drive the wheels but, unlike diesels, the electricity is generated externally at a power station. Electric current is picked up either from a catenary (over head cable) via a pantograph, or from a third rail. Since it does not carry its own power-generating equipment, an electro locomotive has a better power-to-weight ratio and greater acceleration than its diesel-electric equivalent. This make electric trains suitable for urban routes with many stops. They are also faster, quieter and less polluting. The latest electric French TGV (Train a Grande Vitesse) reaches 300 kph (186 mph); other trains, like the London to Paris and Brussels "Euro star", can run at several voltages and operate between different countries. Simpler electric trains performs special duties-the "people mover" at Gatwick Airport in Britain runs betweens terminals.

WORLD WIDE WEB

W o R L d   W i d E   W e B

SINCE 1993, THE WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW) has become one of the fastest growing communication systems in history. Consisting of an expanding pool of "pages" created by companies, associations and individuals, it is accessible to anyone connected to Internet. Two features of the Web make it appearing. The first is the non-linear method of presenting information known as "hypertext". This enables users to jump between documents of subject-related material at the click of the mouse. The second is the multi media format of Web pages, which can be designed using sophisticated graphics, sound and animation and displayed on-screen by a program called a "graphical browser". Since the development of the browser, the Web has become more sophisticated and easier to use and interest in the WWW has exploded.

THE INTERNET AND THE WEB: Tim Berners-Lee, the physics researcher who first conceived the Web in 1989, compared the Internet and the Web to the difference between the brain and the mind; where the Internet is the physical method of communication and the Web is the information itself.

WEB SITES: A Web site is a collection of linked documents stored on a single computer, anywhere in the world. Sites can be linked up to other using "hyper links"

NAVIGATING THE WEB

There are millions of pages available on the Web and graphical browsers, such as Netscape Navigator, provide a window in the computer screen on which these pages are displayed in fine detail. Keyword searches can be performed using a facility called a "search engine"; particular topics can be explored using directories called "subject trees"; and specific pages can be accessed by typing the exact address, or URL (universal resource locator). Others browser tools include"history lists", "hot lists" and "bookmarks".

CHOICE AND VARIETY ON THE INTERNET

From finding a pen-pal to linking up to educational resources, the Web provides information, education and enjoyment for children.

Placing sites on the World Wide Web is becoming an increasingly popular marketing  strategy for many companies around the world.

                                          

Musicians are able to present themselves and their music to the public, and fans can find more information on their favourite bands.

Many news papers and magazines now have regularly updated .on-line editions, such as the UK's Daily telegraph.

HYPERTEXT AND HYPERMEDIA

Using a format called hypertext or hypermedia, Web documents contain links to other pages or text, pictures, sound recordings or video, which can be activated by clicking on highlighted or underlined text or picture icons, known as "hyper links" or "hot spots". These links are created by the programming language HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language), which also defines how the text and graphics will appear on the page.

NETWORK COMPUTERS

N e T w o R k    C o M P u T E r S

THE INTERNET LINKS MILLIONS of computers world wide, and anybody with a personal computer(PC) and basic communication tools can be come  a part of it. The ever-expanding "NET" is becoming a vital resource for business, education and entertainment. The huge multimedia data base of the world wide web, which is one aspect of the  net, is so sophisticated that users can be "meet" in "virtual worlds". As the net evolves, so new ways of computing are made possible. Network computing is one possible development which promises greater compatibility and efficiency than personal computing. At present, the net consists mainly of PCs with large amounts of processing power and disk space called ("fat client computers")  connected to servers (other computer that distribute data). The idea behind network computing is to replace the PC, or fat client, with a network computer (NC) or "thin client". A thin client computer has a processor like a PC, but less memory and so no disk storage, and so is much cheaper. Instead of storing application programs and data on a local hard disk (as a PC does), an NC simply downloads programs and data from a server into its RAM as needed. Network computing promises economies of scale  and centralization, since all the data is stored on a few servers and any software developments that need to be made apply to these servers only.

THIN CLIENT COMPUTER: The thin client NC is halfway between a PC and a  dumb terminal, used on mainframe computers. A dumb terminal consists only of a keyboard and a monitor all processing and data storage is carried out centrally by the main frame. Like dumb terminals NCs have no local disk storage, but like PCs, they do have a processor. In addition to being smaller and cheaper than PCs, NCs should be more reliable, since they do not  have complex peripherals with moving parts, such as disk drives.


DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING: Net work computing has been made possible because the computer industry has agreed hardware and software standards, including a new language, Java. When a thin client-or a fat client acting as Java station-is switched on, its basic boot-up software connects to a network and downloads the full Java operating system. The user can then download Java application programs ( called applets) and data required, paying any fee with a smart card. High-speed links between client and server mean that processing task can be distributed between computers, so the applets can be relatively small. In network computing, the main burden falls not on the client machines but on the network. Whether the present Internet infrastructure(phones lines,cables,etc) has the required capacity, speed and reliability to support network computing remains to be seen.

VIRTUAL WORLDS ON THE NET

 The World Wide Web has brought multi media graphics, animations, sound and hyper linking-to the Internet. The virtual world wide web (VWWW), with virtual environments, is a further development where users can interact graphically with each other. Typically VWWW environments are spread across sites on the net and on a CD-ROM. The basic program runs from the CD, but "interactions" between users occur at VWWW sites.

 All three-dimensional virtual worlds must first be rendered in ink, as shown below, after which the illustrations are digitized by a computer.

 When a user logs on to a virtual world, he or she chooses a graphical identity; this is how they will appear on other users screens around the world. These virtual people scroll around and meet in virtual streets-although the real users might be thousands of miles apart.

 Some features of a virtual world are purely fictional, like a user's graphical identity, while the streets or environment may be based on a real place. But, as in the real Paris, you can "walk" into a store, shop using your real credit card, and have the real goods delivered.